Web-Based Video Fundamentals for Online Educators

The Growth of Online Video

Video is becoming increasingly abundant on the Web these days with millions of hours of footage now available for public viewing online.  The Blinkx video search site (http://www.blinkx.com/) provides some indication of how much video there is with a statement on the home page that reads, “Over 35 million hours of video Search it all.”  The universe of online video content continues to expand as a steady stream of video is uploaded and fed into it at a feverish pace.  YouTube alone continuously receives an astounding amount of new video.  As of May, 2009, YouTube was receiving twenty hours of new video uploads every minute (Junee, 2009).  This was up from mid-2007 when only six hours of new video content was uploaded each minute to YouTube.  In May 2011, it was announced that YouTube was receiving 48 hours of video uploads each minute (YouTube Team, 2011).

The rapid growth of online video content is accompanied by substantial increases in usage over time.  In December, 2007 a survey of adult American Internet users, conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International for the Pew Internet & American Life Project, revealed that 48% of respondents had visited a video-sharing site like YouTube (Rainie, 2008).  This was up from the previous December when only 33% of survey respondents reported visiting such sites.  Survey results further indicated that, on a typical day, user traffic to video-sharing sites had doubled from the end of 2006 to the end of 2007.  The following year, data from the comScore Video Metrix service revealed that U.S. Internet users had viewed a record 14.3 billion online videos in December 2008, which was a 13% increase over the previous month (comScore, 2009a).  Data from the Nielsen VideoCensus illustrated continued growth in that, “From February 2008 to February 2009, the viewers of online videos grew 10%, the number of streams grew 41%, the streams per user grew 27% and the total minutes engaged with online video grew 71%” (Nielsen Online, 2009, p. 7).  In May, 2011 comScore reported that 83.3% of the U.S. Internet audience viewed video online. Cisco (2011) predicts that video traffic will continue to rise in coming years with an estimated 1 million minutes of video content crossing the network in 2015. 

Given that the Web is rich with an abundance of video and Internet users are becoming increasingly accustomed to engaging with it, it should be easy for online educators to tap into this resource to meet various instructional needs.  However, those who are new to online video may find themselves overwhelmed by the massive volume of video content and the maze of video-hosting sites available on the Web these days.  Finding, distributing, and effectively integrating online video may be among the first challenges faced by online educators.  Additional complexity is introduced with the array of interactive tools available on video-sharing sites such as YouTube and how they might be used in an online classroom.  This paper was written to provide fundamental information about online video as it pertains to teaching in general and thus has relevance across the disciplines.  Topics include how to find and distribute video on the Web, strategies for integrating the representational and interactive features of online video, and how to map video to instructional outcomes within the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains when planning instructional activities and assessment.

Finding and Distributing Educational Video on the Web

The term educational video is somewhat difficult to define precisely, because almost any type of video can be used in an educational manner depending on the instructional goal.  For example, a video that includes incorrect information may be a poor candidate for introducing a new topic.  However, it might be splendid for sparking critical thinking during a class discussion about why the information is wrong.  Regardless of the educational purpose in mind, there are millions of hours of video to search through when looking for that perfect video clip for the classroom.  The list in Table 1 covers a selection of video search tools that can facilitate this process.  All of these search tools provide a simple basic search function as would be expected.  Beyond that the tools vary in what they offer in terms of additional features.  Many of them include advanced search capability or filters that enable the user to search specific categories or sort results based on attributes such as date, source, or genre.  Some have special characteristics such as the Blinkx video wall that loads video results into a tabular grid, the VideoSurf face recognition feature, or the EduTube educational video search with options enabling search by category, video type, length, and educational level.  All of the search tools in Table 1 can be used to locate video from multiple hosting services across the Web rather than a single provider. 

Table 1. Selection of Video Search Tools
Name	Website	Special Characteristics
Blinkx	http://www.blinkx.com/	Video wall
CastTV	http://www.casttv.com/	Video reviews
ClipBlast	http://www.clipblast.com/	Save search results
EduTube	http://www.edutube.org/	Educational video search
Fooooo	http://en.fooooo.com/	Remove YouTube videos from results
Google Video	http://video.google.com/	Advanced search for file type
Magnify	http://metasearch.magnify.net/	Search 17 video sites
MeFeedia	http://www.mefeedia.com/	Collect in playlists
Truveo	http://www.truveo.com/	Most viewed, most Twittered
VideoSurf	http://www.videosurf.com/	Face recognition, visual display
YouTube	http://www.youtube.com	Largest video-sharing service available

An alternative method for locating educational video on the Web is to visit sites that cater to an academic audience or that host a concentrated pool of videos that educators are more likely to find useful for instruction.  An alphabetical list of video sites that feature content geared toward traditional educational or academic interests is provided in Table 2.  Local search or browsing within each of these sites will enable the user to locate video of interest. Additional video websites, organized by category, is available at http://edtech.boisestate.edu/snelsonc/yt/onlinevideosites.html

Table 2. Video Sites Containing Educational or Academic Content
Name	Website	Short Description
Academic Earth	http://academicearth.org/	Lectures from top scholars.
AfterEd	http://aftered.tv/	Videos about education.
Big Think	http://bigthink.com/	Ideas and opinions from experts.
CNN Student News	http://www.cnn.com/studentnews/	News stories and learning activities.
Edutopia	http://www.edutopia.org/video/	Videos about public education.
eHow	http://www.ehow.com/videos.html	Demonstration and how-to videos.
eSchool News TV	http://www.eschoolnews.tv/	Video news for K-12 educators.
Fora.tv	http://fora.tv/	Intellectual ideas that impact society.
Graspr	http://www.graspr.com/	Instructional content and tutorials.
Howcast	http://www.howcast.com/	How-to videos on many subjects.
How Stuff Works	http://videos.howstuffworks.com/	Informational videos.
Internet Archive	http://www.archive.org/details/movies	Historical video clips.
MIT Tech TV	http://techtv.mit.edu/	Video-sharing site for MIT.
SciVee	http://www.scivee.tv/	Scientists share their research.
TeacherTube	http://www.teachertube.com/	Video-sharing for educators.
WatchKnowLearn	http://www.watchknowlearn.org/	Categorized directory of videos for kids.
Woopid	http://www.woopid.com/	Technology tutorials.
YouTube EDU	http://www.youtube.com/edu	Video from colleges and universities.

Once online video has been located it can be easily distributed through the Internet.  One of the simplest distribution techniques is to provide a link to the video through e-mail or within online course materials so that students just need to click the link to gain access to the video.  While this is convenient and likely to work well, it should be noted that video can be posted online in any number of formats including QuickTime®, Windows Media®, RealVideo®, and Adobe® Flash®.  Players designed for each of these formats are designed for a specific set of media types and will not play every type of format available.  For example, the QuickTime® player does not currently play Windows Media® files and Windows Media® player does not play QuickTime® files.  This means if the online instructor distributes files in both of these formats students will either need to install separate players or install a cross-platform multi-purpose media player such as the VLC Media player (http://www.videolan.org/vlc/).  The Adobe® Flash® video format has gained popularity among video-sharing sites such as YouTube (http://www.youtube.com), which is presently the largest and most heavily used video-sharing site today (comScore, 2007, 2009b, 2011).  This is advantageous because the Flash player is widely distributed to an estimated 99% of all desktop PCs (Adobe Systems, Inc., 2011).  This being the case, students in an online course are likely to have the Flash player already installed on their computers.  When a link to a YouTube video is sent to students, chances are good that it will play without problems unless YouTube is blocked at the student’s location. 

While the practice of distributing links that point students to online video content is a viable approach, there are other options available within the constellation of video-sharing services.  YouTube, for example, provides a number of sharing options that may be used to distribute video from its site.  Video may be shared through e-mail, by posting to a blog, or through submission to one of a variety of social networking services such as MySpace®, Facebook®, Digg®, Twitter®, and more. HTML embed code is provided by YouTube and other video-sharing services, unless this option is disabled by the owner of the video.  The embed code can be pasted into Web pages, blog posts, online discussion forums, and wikis making it appear as though the video and its player are part of the page even though the video actually streams from the video-sharing service where it is hosted.  YouTube, like most video-sharing sites, provides each of its members with the ability to upload videos to their own Web page, called a channel, for public viewing or private sharing with other YouTube members.  Members can also subscribe to other channels and automatically receive updated video content.  Videos may be collected in favorites lists or customizable playlists as well.  Like individual videos, each playlist comes with a link to the playlist page and its own HTML embed code. (For an example of a playlist see: http://www.youtube.com/playlist?p=PL364053C8710EAA16)  This means that groups of videos collected in playlists can be shared and distributed in the same way that individual video clips are.  An embedded playlist enables users to either watch a collection of videos in sequence or select among the videos through the use of a built-in navigation tool.  An example of an embedded video playlist may be observed on the YouTube APIs and Tools website at: http://code.google.com/apis/youtube/overview.html

It is easy to locate, collect, and distribute video from YouTube, but playlists created in YouTube can only contain videos hosted on the YouTube site.  What if the online educator wishes to collect playlists of videos from various places around the Web?  One solution is to use a video aggregation tool such as MeFeedia (http://www.mefeedia.com/) or Embedr (http://embedr.com/).  These tools allow users to collect playlists of videos from multiple sites without having to establish separate accounts with each individual video-sharing service.  Typically, only one account with the aggregation service is needed.  As video clips are found through an online search, links to them can be aggregated into one online playlist that can be distributed as a group by providing a link to it.  This expands the reach of the video playlist to go beyond the boundaries of a single video-sharing site and tap into the vast wealth of video content found all over the Web. 

Those who enjoy creating their own videos, or do not find what they need online, will discover that academic video production and distribution is not excessively difficult.  Webcams and inexpensive portable video cameras are readily available to record original video content.  Screen recording software, such as Camtasia Studio®, supports the development of narrated PowerPoint® presentations or software tutorials.  Computers typically come equipped with video-editing software such as Movie Maker for Windows® or iMovie® for Macintosh®.  How-to manuals for video production and editing are likely to be available at many bookstores and there is information on the Internet as well.  The Videomaker website (http://www.videomaker.com/) is a good starting point for information and tutorials about video hardware, software, and production techniques.  Once video has been produced, it can be uploaded to YouTube or one of the many free video-sharing services currently available where it can be hosted and distributed to students in an online course. 

Integrating Representational and Interactive Features of Online Video

At first glance, online video seems like a new phenomenon and in some respects it is.  The rise of video-sharing is a recent phenomenon largely influenced and driven by the creation of YouTube in 2005 (Nielsen Online, 2009).  Yet, while it is true that video-sharing technologies are only a few years old, the evolution of motion picture technologies actually extends back more than one hundred years.  The earliest technologies for recording and playing moving pictures date back to the 1800s and educational film entered U.S. schools around 1910 (Saettler, 2004).  From the beginning, the innate qualities of the moving image were utilized for purposes that are as valuable in today’s online course as they were in the days when the classroom projector and film reel were in use.  The ability to bring the world into the classroom, depict motion, speed up or slow down time, show microscopic life, view historical events, watch expert demonstrations or performances, and enjoy vicarious trips to faraway places are among the capabilities that have long been described from the early days of educational film literature (Devereux, Engelhardt, Mort, & Stoddard, 1933; Ellis & Thornborough, 1923; Greene, 1926; Snelson & Perkins, 2009). 

Despite the intrinsic value of film or video for instruction, it should be noted that video is not automatically superior to other media formats.  The long debate over media’s contribution to learning is well known (Clark & Feldon, 2005; Nathan & Robinson, 2001).  The effectiveness of media for instruction depends on multiple factors including how the media is designed and the teaching methodologies used.  Teaching and learning are complex processes and the integration of any form of media only adds to the complexity.  Yet, some evidence of effective multimedia learning has been produced.  Learning gains have been reported for both retention and transfer of information when visuals are coupled with audio narration (Clark & Mayer, 2008; Mayer, 2001).  This result is explained in part by dual-coding theory, which proposes the existence of dual cognitive structures that handle visual and verbal information processing (Paivio, 1990).  This makes it possible to attend to and process visual and auditory information simultaneously without experiencing cognitive overload.  Video is a form of media that can easily combine visual and auditory information and take advantage of dual-channel information processing.

Video also provides a set of representational attributes that are a logical match to certain types of instructional activities.  This point is illustrated with the set of activities listed in Table 3.  When the search phrases, listed in the center column, are submitted to the Blinkx video search engine examples of video clips that correspond to the instructional activities should be produced in the results list. Each of the search phrases in the center column is linked to Blinkx search results to illustrate this point. 

Table 3.  Representational Attributes of Video Mapped to Instructional Activities
Instructional Activity	Search Phrase	Relevant Attributes of Video
Watch time lapse videos of plants to see how they move over time.	time lapse plant	Speed up video to reduce time needed for an event to occur.
Watch slow motion video of lightning strikes to easily see the entire process.	slow motion lightning	Slow an event that is normally too fast to easily observe.
See an event that cannot be replicated.	Tacoma Narrows Bridge	Realistic depiction of events from the real world.
Learn how to read human body language by examining multiple examples.	body language	Depiction of motion and behavior.
Learn how to move a crochet hook to make different types of stitches.	crochet stitch	Depiction of a motion sequence in a demonstration.
Study historical footage of the first Moon landing and hear people discuss ideas about a conspiracy.	Moon landing	Record historical events and human speech.
Compare several performances of the same piece of classical music on different instruments.	Bach Air	Record sound and visuals during a performance.
Study how various types of microscopic organisms move around.	microscopic life	View examples of microscopic life in motion.
Go on a virtual field trip of Antarctica.	Antarctica	Vicarious experience of a place that is either far away or too difficult to visit.
Learn how to speak the Spanish language.	speak Spanish	Hear correct pronunciations and watch mouth movements. Replay as needed.
Learn the structure and function of DNA.	dna visualization	Visual depiction of DNA.

In addition to easy access to millions of hours of video and its valuable representational attributes, video-sharing services enable alternative ways to develop community and engage in discourse during an online course.  YouTube is a viable option for this because it has a well-developed set of features that are conducive to online education (Snelson, 2008, 2009).  On YouTube, communities of class friends can be established to support collaboration through both text and video formats. Asynchronous video communication is simplified through the use of the quick capture tool through which video can be recorded directly from webcam to YouTube (YouTube Help, 2011).  Videos may be set as either public or private, so those who are uncomfortable posting video of themselves on the public Web they can share video privately with others who have YouTube accounts.  In an online course devoid of face-to-face meetings, the use of video interjects human faces, voices, mannerisms, and gestures into the online discussion thus contributing both verbal and non-verbal communication. 

In addition to online discussions, processes such as instructor or peer review may also be handled through video.  Screen-recording software and a microphone can be used to record audio commentary together with a screen recording of the item under review.  Through this process the reviewer is able to show exactly what he or she is talking about while talking about the work under review. The feedback video can then be sent privately through YouTube where it can be played by the person who is receiving the review.

Instructional activities such as those just described can provide students with valuable learning experiences that take advantage of both the representational attributes of video and the interactive tools of video-sharing services.  However, it is not enough to merely engage students with meaningful activities without a mechanism through which their effectiveness can be determined.  It is important to consider how these activities fit within the larger instructional process, which includes at least three basic steps: planning instruction, delivering instruction, and assessing student outcomes (Airasian & Russell, 2008, p. 57).  When planning and delivering instruction, it helps to have the end in mind so that the intended learning outcomes guide the instructional design process.  This is why the well-known Systems Approach to instructional design places the development of both performance objectives and assessment instruments ahead of instructional materials development in the instructional design sequence (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005).  The role video plays in the process of measuring learning outcomes can be written directly into the language of instructional objectives during both instructional planning and assessment design.  The next section illustrates this by showing how video can interweave within measurable instructional objectives mapped to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. 

Mapping Video to the Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains

The cognitive (intellectual), affective (attitudes, values), and psychomotor (motor skills) domains describe three primary categories of learning that have long been used to classify instructional objectives (Airasian & Russell, 2008; Kibler, Cegala, Miles, & Barker, 1974; Krathwohl, Bloom, & Bertram, 1964).  Taxonomies based on each of the three domains provide a framework that organizes instructional objectives across a broad range of observable behaviors.  While it is possible for learning to occur without observable behavior, it is difficult to assess without the presence of a tangible product or performance that can be observed and measured.  Instructional objectives serve a valuable purpose here because they are, “…statements that describe what students will be able to do after completing a prescribed unit of instruction” (Kibler, et al., 1974, p. 2).  Dick, Carey, and Carey (2005) equated instructional objectives with performance objectives noting that, “A performance objective is a detailed description of what students will be able to do when they complete a unit of instruction.” (p. 125).  Mager (1997) stressed that instructional objectives should be specific, measurable, and focused on students rather than teachers.  In other words, instructional objectives measure the ends rather than the means of the educational process as demonstrated by something the learner does or produces. 

Several formats for writing instructional objectives have been proposed over the years.  Each of the formats can be used to write objectives for the cognitive, affective, or psychomotor domains with or without video included.  Kibler, Cegala, Miles, and Barker (1974, p. 35) prescribed a five part objective statement that includes:

1. Who is to perform the desired behavior (e.g., “the student” or “the learner”).
2. The actual behavior to be employed in demonstrating mastery of the objective (e.g., “to write” or “to speak”).
3. The result (e.g., the product or performance) of the behavior, which will be evaluated to determine whether the objective is mastered (e.g., “an essay” or “the speech”).
4. The relevant conditions under which the behavior is to be performed (e.g., “in a one-hour quiz” or “in front of the class”).
5. The standard that will be used to evaluate the success of the product or performance (e.g., “90 percent correct” or “four out of five correct”).

The five part instructional objective is indeed highly specific, measurable, and focused on the student. When video is integrated into the learning outcome, the result is a video-centric instructional objective.  An example written in the five part format is as follows:  Given a video clip of a Rube Goldberg device in action (4) the learner (1) will point to instances where energy transfer occurs (2) and write a list of observed energy transfers (3) that is 90 percent correct (5).  In this example video serves dual functions.  First, it provides a representation to display the sequence of events that occur after the Rube Goldberg device has been activated. Second, it serves as the relevant condition under which the behavior is performed.  (Please note that a video search for “Rube Goldberg” will produce many video clip examples.)

Mager (1997, p. 50) proposed a three-part instructional objective format that is similar to the format proposed by Kibler, Cegala, Miles, and Barker (1974), but folds behavior and results together, and leaves out an explicit statement of who will perform the behavior.  The three parts of Mager’s instructional objective format include:

1. Performance: It describes what the learner is expected to be able to do. 
2. Conditions: It describes the conditions under which the performance is expected to occur. 
3. Criterion: It describes the level of competence that must be reached or surpassed. 

The three part instructional objective format is less detailed than the five part version, yet maintains adequate specificity to describe a measurable learning outcome.  When the example instructional objective for the Rube Goldberg device and energy transfer video is rewritten in this format it becomes: Given a video clip of a Rube Goldberg device in action (2) write a list of observed energy transfers (1) that is 90 percent correct (3).  Again, in this example the video clips plays a role in the condition through which the instructional outcome is measured. 

Another format for instructional objectives omits the criterion and places the emphasis on learner behavior and content or subject matter.  This style of instructional objective was described decades ago by Tyler (1949) who wrote that, “The most useful form for stating objectives is to express them in terms which identify both the kind of behavior to be developed in the student and the content or area of life in which this behavior is to operate” (pp. 46-47).  Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) proposed a similar version of this type of instructional objective, but emphasized knowledge rather than content and cognitive process instead of behavior.  This format uses both a noun (knowledge) and a verb (cognitive process) in the instructional objective statement.  When the Rube Goldberg energy transfer objective is written using this format it becomes: Identify and describe (cognitive process) energy transfers that are shown in a video clip of a Rube Goldberg device in action (knowledge).  This format is simple, yet effective in conveying the intended learning outcome.

The cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies provide a framework for categorizing instructional objectives across the disciplines.  When designing the online course, the role of video, or any other form of media, can be clearly articulated and carefully planned through the use of instructional objectives and taxonomies.  The result is a set of explicitly defined outcomes that integrate media intelligently and align closely to instructional activities implemented in the classroom.  Each of the three domains is discussed next to illustrate what this might look like. 

Video in the Cognitive Domain 

Some of the most commonly used taxonomies date back long before online instruction yet maintain present-day value.  One of the most widely used taxonomies for the cognitive domain is Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956).  Table 4 lists the levels of thought defined in the original Bloom’s taxonomy.  Complexity of thought increases from the knowledge level up to the evaluation level.  The instructional objectives listed in the table correspond to the levels of thinking in the taxonomy while simultaneously integrating video.  The example objectives are mapped to topics for which online video can be readily located (e.g., microorganisms, Tacoma Narrows Bridge, classroom management, body language, expert speeches, conspiracy-theory footage).  The information in Table 4 illustrates how, despite its age, Bloom’s taxonomy remains useful in the online video-sharing age. 

Table 4. Bloom’s Original Taxonomy Mapped to Video
Categories	Instructional Objectives Involving Video
1. Knowledge Recall and remember information.	Write down the correct name for each microorganism shown in a video of pond life.
2. Comprehension Basic understanding of information and ability to make use of information.	Explain in one’s own words the scientific reason for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse shown in a video clip.
3. Application Use of abstract ideas, theories, principles, procedures, or methods for a particular purpose.	Use knowledge of classroom management strategies to formulate a recommendation for a teacher observed in a video of a disruptive classroom.
4. Analysis Break information down into constituent parts and identify interrelationships, hierarchies, and patterns that relate those parts.	Identify speech and body language patterns in video clips of police interrogations.
5. Synthesis Put elements, pieces, and parts together to form a new pattern or structure.	Write a report that integrates diverse perspectives on the issues of global warming based on videotaped speeches of scientists, economists, and politicians.
6. Evaluation Make judgments about the value or merit of something.	Determine the validity of information contained in a video clip that is presented as evidence of a conspiracy and explain to what extent the evidence is viable.

A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy was published in 2001 (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).  The revised taxonomy divides knowledge and cognitive processes into separate dimensions as shown in Table 5.  The knowledge dimension includes factual, conceptual, procedural, and meta-cognitive categories.  The knowledge dimension provides the noun portion of the noun-verb format of instructional objective.  The verb portion is obtained from the cognitive process dimension of the taxonomy.  Instructional objectives have been added to Table 5 to illustrate how video maps to each knowledge-cognitive process intersection in the taxonomy.  Multiple topics from different content areas are included to demonstrate how the taxonomy can be used to write instructional objectives when planning video-enhanced instruction within various disciplines.  All of the objectives in Table 5 use examples for which online video clips are generally easy to find.

Table 5.  Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Mapped to Video
	The Cognitive Process Dimension
The Knowledge Dimension	1. Remember	2. Understand	3. Apply	4. Analyze	5. Evaluate	6. Create
A. Factual Knowledge Knowledge of terminology and details.	Name musical compositions when watching video clips of orchestra performances.	Draw a labeled diagram illustrating the events shown in a video of the Mt. St. Helens eruption.	Apply correct PHP syntax when renaming variables in a copy of code demonstrated in a video tutorial.	Analyze a weather report video to identify weather symbols used by the meteorologist.	Determine the accuracy of facts contained in a video depiction of the Battle of Gettysburg.	Develop a Google Map of the U.S. state capitals with links to videos showing each city.
B. Conceptual Knowledge Knowledge of classifications, categories, principles, generalization, theories, and models.	State that the theory of plate tectonics explains continental drift shown in a time-lapse video animation.	Classify Native American dances shown in several video clips according to style of dance.	Use a dichotomous key to identify vertebrates shown in a playlist of video clips depicting various animals.	Analyze video clips of commentary recorded by various individuals to look for evidence of possible psychological conditions.	Determine if videos that teach models of atomic structure align with current theory.	Produce a branching story that includes linked video clips and integrates archetypes of Campbell’s hero’s journey.
C. Procedural Knowledge Knowledge of skills, algorithms, techniques, methods, and procedures.	Identify and name the steps involved in the process of CPR as they are demonstrated in a video.	Explain the problem-solving process used in a video tutorial of a math teacher solving a quadratic equation.	Apply procedures for safe-food handling shown in a video tutorial when preparing a chicken dish.	Analyze videos of job interviews to determine when certain techniques for asking and answering questions are appropriate.	Evaluate the video clip of a titration demo to determine if the procedure was done correctly.	Record a video tutorial that shows two different methods for converting audio files from one format to another.
D. Meta-Cognitive Knowledge Knowledge of strategy, cognitive tasks, and self knowledge.	State that the acronym ROY G BIV is a mnemonic device for remembering the spectrum of colors in white light shown in videotaped prism experiments.	Explain how concept mapping can be used to illustrate major themes and how they are connected in video documentaries about global warming.	Show how to use a self-questioning strategy to improve retention of information contained in the video of a presentation recorded at an academic conference.	Analyze video clips of change blindness experiments to identify ways that people can miss obvious details, events, and information.	Critique a video of self teaching a lesson designed to address multiple learning styles.	Prepare a time-management plan to balance school, job, and personal demands that is based on tips and techniques described by experts in a video series.

Video in the Affective Domain 

The affective domain deals with objectives that are related to feelings, attitudes, emotions, and values (Krathwohl, et al., 1964).  Affective behaviors, described in Table 6, range from simple receiving to highly developed and persistent characteristics described at the characterization by a value or value complex end of the taxonomy.  The affective domain delves into the human response or reaction to instruction, which can be of critical importance.  For example, it is important for health-care students who are studying medical liability to develop a value system and attitudes that will motivate them to avoid incidents of medical negligence (Snelson & Elison-Bowers, 2009).  This is a case where outcomes within the affective domain are appropriate.  Video is a good fit for the affective domain because it is a medium through which a dramatic story or message may be represented with compelling imagery, music, narration, and body language.  Anyone who has been moved to laughter or tears during a movie understands the power of the motion picture story.  If the goal is to evoke emotion and inspire learners to internalize values consistent with a profession or field of study, then video may be preferable as an emotion-provoking representation.  The instructional objective examples in Table 6 illustrate the timelessness of the affective taxonomy for classifying outcomes that use video; even video that is found on the Web today.

Table 6. The Affective Domain Taxonomy Mapped to Video
Major Categories	Instructional Objectives Involving Video
1. Receiving (Attending) Awareness of information, willingness to pay attention, or control the focus of attention on selected stimuli.	Listens carefully for and describes similarities and differences among a selection of video recordings showing several performances of the same piece of music that are each played using different instruments and/or musicians.
2. Responding Acceptance of information, willingness to comply, engagement in voluntary activity, or emotional reaction such as satisfaction or enjoyment.	Volunteers to initiate a recycling program that will help to address local environmental problems shown and described in video news stories.
3. Valuing Adopting a belief or attitude that something has worth or developing a preference or conviction.	Independently searches for, watches, and shares video clips of candidate speeches and debates that highlight critical issues during an election.
4. Organization Conceptualize how new values relate to previously internalized ones, arrange or classify values into a consistent system, identify relationships among values, determine which values are dominant.	Forms and articulates beliefs regarding professional responsibility of health-care providers for their patients while watching video clips describing medical negligence.
5. Characterization by a Value or Value Complex Maintains a mature and consistent system of attitudes and values that characterize behavior and orientation toward phenomena.	Reviews video clips from various colleges and selects institutions most closely aligned with personal goals, life philosophy, and interests to submit applications to.

Video in the Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain focuses on motor skills and tasks that require a mind-body connection.  Tasks such as playing a musical instrument, driving a car, or performing a gymnastic routine fall within the psychomotor domain.  Several psychomotor domain taxonomies have been developed including those written by Harrow (1972), Dave (1970) and Simpson (1966).  Table 7 contains instructional objectives based on a later and more developed version of the psychomotor taxonomy written by Simpson and cited in Kibler, Cegala, Miles, and Barker (1974, pp. 106-112).  Instructional objectives at the lower end (perception) are less complex and easier to carry out than those at the higher end (origination).  However, more complex behaviors described at the higher level build on lower level psychomotor tasks.  The examples of instructional objectives for each level show how video can be integrated into psychomotor tasks and outcomes.  This has fascinating implications for online education in fields of study such as physical education that do not easily translate to online learning environments (Ransdell, Rice, Snelson, & DeCola, 2008).  In this type of course, video can be used to demonstrate skills or to record student performance in support of some, but perhaps not all, psychomotor outcomes.  The examples of instructional objectives in Table 7 illustrate how video might be used within the psychomotor domain. 

Table 7. The Psychomotor Domain Taxonomy Mapped to Video
Major Categories	Instructional Objectives Involving Video
1. Perception The process of becoming aware of objects, qualities, or relations by way of the sense organs: auditory, visual, tactile, taste, smell, and kinesthetic (muscle sense).	Watch a video demonstration of someone tuning a guitar, listen to the sound each string makes when it is plucked, and identify the sound of guitar strings that are in tune.
2. Set The preparatory adjustment or readiness for a particular kind of action or experience that includes mental, physical, and emotional preparation or adjustments.	Watch a video of someone dissecting a frog and indicate readiness to perform a real dissection in a science lab.
3. Guided Response Behavior conducted under the guidance of the instructor or in response to self-evaluation where the student has a model or criteria to judge performance against.	Use a piece of string to tie a square knot while following along with a step-by-step video demonstration.
4. Mechanism Learned response has become habitual and a certain level of confidence or proficiency is demonstrated when carrying out a task.	Record a video of oneself swinging a golf club, slow the speed of the video, and use a motion analysis technique to demonstrate proficiency of performance.
5. Complex Overt Response The individual can perform a motor act that is considered complex because of the movement pattern required.	Produce a tutorial video demonstrating how to correctly use a meat slicer with a variety of foods.
6. Adaptation Altering motor activities to meet the demands of new problematic situations requiring a physical response.	Videotape performance of first aid techniques applied during an emergency response training simulation.
7. Origination Creating new motor acts or ways of manipulating materials out of understandings, abilities, and skills developed in the psychomotor area.	Choreograph and videotape the performance of a new ballet routine to demonstrate personal skill and knowledge.

The cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies cover three domains of human thinking, attitudes, and skills.  Together they have the capacity to cover a broad range of content areas and instructional objectives.  It should be noted that some overlap can occur where more than one of the taxonomies seem to apply.  It is certainly possible to have cognitive elements in affective or psychomotor outcomes.  For example, when learning about medical liability there are facts as well as values involved, or when learning how to use a stick shift while driving the learner needs to understand what a clutch does.  In cases like this, instructional objectives can be classified wherever it makes the most sense based on the primary outcome of the objective.  The relevant attributes of video can then be identified and mapped to the objective.  This has implications for classroom practice, instructional design, and even research because learning goals and the role of media is clearly identified and stated in explicit terms. 

Final Thoughts

In recent years a proliferation of interactive Web 2.0 tools, including video-sharing services, have become commonplace.  New tools often spark the imagination of educators and scholars who envision new opportunities for teaching and learning.  In recent years, literature has been written on the topic of new media design (Barfield, 2004) and the emergence of participatory culture and learning 2.0 (Brown & Adler, 2008).  Information is routinely shared by experts and everyday people on blogs, wikis, Twitter, and YouTube every day contributing to the evolution of informal and just-in-time learning.  While this may appear to suggest that well-established paradigms for teaching and learning are outdated this is not necessarily the case.  Old does not automatically equate to bad.  For example, many of the representational attributes of video described in this paper are still as valuable today as they were when educational film first entered the classroom.  What is new is the set of tools now available on the Web that make it easier than ever to host, distribute, share, and interact with video.  Similarly, the three taxonomies for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains have their genesis in a period of education prior to the Web and new digital media.  The revised edition of Bloom’s taxonomy is the exception, having been published after the birth of the World Wide Web.  The original Bloom’s taxonomy, despite its age is still being used today, which speaks to its timelessness. 

The online video explosion provides a wealth of free video content that can be tapped into as a resource for online education.  Educators, course designers, and researchers may find it helpful to consider how the fundamental representational attributes of video help to meet educational outcomes within the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies.  This identifies the salient characteristics of video and how it supports attainment of learning outcomes.  Future work may focus on clearly defining how attributes of new media, such as collaborative or interactive features, map to video-centric instructional delivery and assessment of learning.  There is still much to learn about video and video-sharing that can begin with these types of operational definitions.  Video-sharing continues to evolve and the need for ongoing research is evident.  This is something that has the potential to benefit many as both online video and online learning continue to grow.